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ISSN 2309-0103 www.archidoct.net
Vol. 7 (2) / February 2020
tors, spatial data management interfaces, video games, interactive CAD/CAM systems and driving an automobile. Users experience direct manipulation interfaces as lively and enjoyable. They are easy to learn, faster to operate and more satisfying to use. Immediate feedback affords users to adjust input as soon as the effect is undesired, often removing the need for instruction and error messages. According to Shneider- man, direct manipulation is both beneficial for learning situations and affords fluid and extensible operation to expert users. Even though Shneiderman did not refer to Csikszentmihalyi’s flow concept, his description of the conditions and user experience of direct manipulation bears strong similarities to the psychological concept of flow experience.
A seminal essay on the topic, Direct Manipulation Interfaces(Hutchins et al., 1985), was written with the goal of giving cognitive account of direct manipulation. Itwas rooted in the assumption that the feeling of directness which emerges in direct manipulation originates in the commitment of fewer cognitive resources. Two underlying phenom- ena of the feeling ofdirectnesswere identified, called distance and engagement. Dis- tance isthe information processing distancebetween intentions of the user and execu- tions of actions by the machine. Direct engagement occurs as appropriate application of the model-world metaphor. Following this metaphor the world is explicitly repre- sentedand the user has the sensation of acting immediately upon the objects of the task domain. The other of the two major metaphors for the nature of human-computer interaction, the conversation metaphor, would have the interface act as medium in which user and system have a conversation about a not explicitly represented world.
2.6 Theory of Affordances
The IS includes the embedded user similar to the way in which an animal is embedded within its natural environment, in an environmental niche. The abstraction of habitat applies itself to formulate a holistic approach to design modeling because it indicatesa type of socio-technical systems, comprised of the interactions between people, devic- es, codesand processes that join them (May and Kristensen, 2004).
The Theory of Affordances(Gibson, 1986) is based on the idea of a world of ecological reality, a conception of the world through its meaningful relations to the animal. The relationship between animal and environment is reciprocal, they can only exist as each other’s complement. Affordances are what the environments offers, or affords, to an- imals and humans.Raw materials afford manufacture, surfaces afford pose, mobility, contact and handling, shapes of certain form and size can afford protection from the elements. To a skilled animal or human, objects can afford to be used as tool or as weapon.
At the core of Gibson’s theory of affordances stands the argument that affordances are invariants which are not affected by their perception or misperception.Their meanings are not to be imposed upon them; they are to be discovered. Because of this they have been described as actionable relationships(Norman, 1999)between animal and environment.
IS can be further framed through the affordances that can occur in them.
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Immediate Systems. Human-In-The-Loop Cyber-Physical Systemsthat Embed Design and Implementation in Situations of Use
Christian Friedrich